Characterizing the flavor of New Zealand native plants using consumer-derived attributes and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Abstract

Understanding the flavor properties of Aotearoa-New Zealand native plants is essential for their successful incorporation into foods and beverages. This study characterized the flavor of six edible plant species using consumer sensory evaluation and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) of volatile compounds. Standardized liquid infusions were prepared for all species, and a lexicon of 21 flavor attributes was developed through six consumer focus groups (n = 36). A Rate-All-That-Apply (RATA) evaluation with consumers (n = 121) provided attribute intensity ratings and sample overall liking (9-point scale). Flavor attributes differed significantly across species. Kiokio received the highest liking (5.62), characterized by “sweet,” “fruity,” “fresh,” and “floral” notes. Horopito followed (4.98), defined by “spicy” and “peppery” pungency. Scores below the scale midpoint were observed for Red matipo (4.56), dominated by “green tea” notes, and Kawakawa (4.47), associated with “herbal” and “minty” attributes. Lemonwood (2.52) and Pikopiko (2.59) were the least liked, driven primarily by intense “bitter” and “astringent” notes. GC–MS annotated 69 volatile compounds across species, of which a subset of 20, primarily terpenes and aldehydes, best explained variation in key flavor attributes (e.g., terpinen-4-ol and trans-calamenene for “spicy”). Generalized Procrusters Analysis revealed strong sensory–chemical alignment for Horopito, Kawakawa, and Red matipo, whereas Kiokio, Lemonwood, and Pikopiko showed weaker alignment, indicating that some major taste drivers arise from nonvolatile constituents. The findings provide foundational flavor characterization for New Zealand native plants and offer practical guidance for ingredient development, processing optimization, and formulation strategies to maximize consumer acceptance.